Methods of Psychology

Methods of Psychology:

What ever Psychological concepts are they need to be scientific, objective, reliable and valid , so as to call psychology a science.

Some important methods are as follows:

1. Case study method: Scientific biographies, known as case histories are important sources of data for psychologists studying individuals. Here, detailed information regarding the past and present condition of the client is obtained through interviewing the parents, siblings, neighbors, relatives, teachers and the client himself. This information is supported by medical and psychological investigations.

Most case histories are prepared by reconstructing the biography of a person as to remembered events and records. Social psychologists employ the case method at different levels. At the first level, the case method is employed to study and understand the various factors related to the occurrence of a particular event. A second level of application of the case method is at the level of organizations. Third, at community level. Case study method can be used at different levels and for different purposes. In fact a number of such cases can often help generate ideas or more controlled lab and field studies. Used carefully the method can help us get lot of insight into the nature of different kinds of behavior.

Advantages:

• Rare cases can be studied.
• Complex behavior can be intensively studied. This method provides detailed information about the person under study.
• Though it is time consuming method, a significant understanding can be gained about the clients functioning.

Disadvantages:

• Control of variables impossible.
• Data often based on fallible memories.
• Investigator bias likely high. Causal conclusions impossible. It may result in distortions of events or oversights and
• A large amount of data has to be collected from many individuals.

2. Observation method- It is the basic method of psychology. In Naturalistic observation, the behavior of persons is observed in the natural setting, that is, at the place where the behavior occurs. For example, if one wishes to observe the crying behavior of a child who cries in a classroom, the crying has to be observed in the classroom setting. The information for observation is collected through seeing, hearing or by recording. To collect the information, the observer has two options-Participant and Nonparticipant. The observer may participate in the activities of the persons being observed (Participant observation), or the observer may remain detached from the activities of the persons being observed (non-participant observation). In second one the experimenter uses some recording systems like a tape recorder, videocassette recorder or one way mirror observation.

Advantages of natural observation are:

• It is easy to collect data and no special arrangements or tools are required. As the aim of psychology is to understand and predict behavior in life situations, observation method gives the scope to study behavior in life situations.
• Realistic setting helps generalization.
• Intrusiveness is low.

Disadvantages:

• Some aspects of behavior are implicit and are not open to observation.
• Feelings and other internal processes cannot be observed.
• It is difficult to convert data from natural observation into quantitative terms. Subjectively, bias and prejudices also color our observation.

• Many instances of behavior do not repeat themselves. Ex., friend in accident.
• It involves lot of time and effort.
• Control of variables is impossible.
• Data collection is inefficient. Investigator bias possible.causal conclusions impossible.

Techniques and methods of Observation method are: 1. Anecdotal record- is a written record immediately after an incident occurs. That is, the situation and place of occurrence. These are observational notes, about something that has struck the observer. 2. Running record- here everything happens in a situation is written down including each action and dialogue. 3. A specimen record- is a detailed recorded version of a particular person, situation and the environment. Time sampling records, event sampling records, graphic scale and checklists.

Correlational observation: the advantages are relationships between variables can be found, Precise measurement usually possible.,Intrusiveness usually low. Disadvantages are causal conclusions impossible, control of variables difficult and many participants required.

3. Experimental method: This is controlled observation. Here we formulate hypothesis and test it. Psychological experiments performed essentially require two persons, the experimenter and the subject or the person whose behavior is observed. Psychological experiments are always conducted on living organisms in contrast to experiments in physical sciences which are generally conducted on inorganic or dead subjects. The key factor in this method is the controlling of the conditions or variables. By this control we can eliminate irrelevant conditions or variables and isolate relevant ones. In this way we become able to observe the causal relation between two phenomenon keeping all other conditions almost constant. For example, if we try to study the effect of intelligence on academic achievement by experimental method, we will need to discover the causative relation between the two phenomena (variables)- intelligence and academic achievement. One of these variables the effect of which we want to study, will be called independent variable and the other is dependent variable. Thus Independent variable stands for the cause and the dependent variable is characterized as the effect of that cause. The other conditions like study habits, sex, socio-economic conditions, parental education, home environment, health, past learning, memory etc. which exercise desirable impact upon one’s achievement, besides his intelligence are termed as intervening variables. In experimentation all such Intervening variables are to be controlled ie., made constant or equalized and the effect of only one Independent variable like intelligence in the present case is studied on one or more dependent variables. For this we try to change and vary the independent variable. It brings concomitant changes in the dependent variable or variables. These changes are objectively observed and measured and on their basis conclusions are drawn.

Thus Experimental method is defined as scientific method in which an experimenter changes or varies the events which are hypothesized to have an effect, controls other variables likely to affect a result and looks for an effect of the change or variation on the system under observation.

Advantages:

• Precise control is possible.
• Causal conclusions are possible.
• Precise measurement.
• Theory can be effectively tested.
• The experimental method helps to understand the behavioral pattern of living beings in more authentic manner.

Disadvantages:

• Behavior becomes artificial when produced in lab.
• Success of this method lies in the controlling of conditions and variables. But it is almost difficult to know and control all the interviewing variables.
• It is debatable whether experiments on animals are applicable to human beings.
• It is costly and time consuming.
• Intrusiveness typically high.
• Complex behaviors difficult to measure.
• Unstructured exploratory research difficult.

4. Introspection method: Introspection simply means looking within, that is, analyzing and describing one’s own experiences. Morgan et al (1986) defines introspection as 'a method of psychological experimentation in which a subject is asked to describe his/her own mental reaction to a stimulus perception of one’s inner feelings’. To do an objective introspection, one has to be trained to analyze the experiences. The major advantage of this method is that one can analyze the private experiences that are not accessible to others because a person knows his own experiences better than others.

5. Survey method- the survey method is employed whenever we are interested in knowing how a particular behavior is distributed among a group of people. Surveys can be general, relating to the people at large or to specific groups like students or workers or housewives. They have also been used to obtain information on political opinions, consumer preferences, health care needs, and others. Surveys can be of two types. In some instances we can study all the people belonging to a particular community that we are interested in, this type of survey is known as hand , if we donot have time and facilities, we can study a sample (or one part) of the population, this is called sample survey. Sample surveys have been found to yield very accurate findings and predictions when carried out carefully and the sample is a good representative of the population.

Questionnaires are used to collect information from the sample. They contain a series of questions that may differ widely in degree of difficulty or depth of probing.

Advantages:

• Data collection is efficient.
• Attitude or opinion can be measured.

Disadvantages :

• Causal conclusions are impossible.
• Self-reports are difficult to verify.
• Unbiased sample selection is difficult.
• Response rates are low when mailed.

6. Archival research: Advantages:

• Here, no additional data collection required.
• Rare behaviors can be studied.
• Non events can be studied.

Disadvantages:

• Appropriate records often not available.
• Data is collected by non scientists.
• Data usually correlated at best.

7. Ethnography: Advantages:

• Unfamiliar situations can be described.
• Complex behaviors can be described.
• Intrusiveness low.
• Participants treated humanistic ally.

Disadvantages:

• Control of variables impossible.
• Precise measurement difficult.
• Investigator bias possible.
• Causal conclusions impossible.

There are other methods like inventory which is essentially a list; the test items are in the form of reminds often they are sentences to be checked as applicable or not, test method, use of questionnaires, interviews etc which are also used in psychology, to study behavior use test items. Test items are either Structured items or open ended items. In structured item the subject is given little leeway in answering, the question is specific, and the answer is expected to be in same vein. This is difficult to construct and easy to score. In Open-ended item subject is given considerable latitude in answering. This is easy to prepare but scoring is difficult.

In many researchers, more than one method is employed . There are researchers where the survey method, the case study method and the experimental method can be used together. The choice depends on the purpose of the research, the resources available and time available.